Metamorphism changes the mineralogy and texture of existing rock through heat, pressure and chemically active fluids without requiring complete melting. Th
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Igneous textures preserve clues about how magma or lava cooled. Crystal size, shape and arrangement can reveal whether molten material solidified slowly un
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Earth's lithosphere is divided into moving plates that interact at divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. These settings help explain the global d
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The rock cycle describes the transformations that connect igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is not a fixed sequence: any rock can be uplifted,
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A caldera is a broad volcanic depression formed when the ground collapses or subsides after a large volume of magma is withdrawn from a shallow reservoir.
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Alluvial fans are fan-shaped sediment deposits that form where streams emerge from confined valleys onto flatter terrain. They are common in arid and
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Columnar basalt is a striking volcanic rock formation in which cooling lava is divided into long, polygonal columns. The geometry is natural: it devel
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Bedding records the layering of sedimentary rocks and provides a reference for reconstructing how strata were deposited and later deformed. Its orient
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A geological map shows the distribution of rock units and structures at or near the Earth's surface. Its colours are not decoration: they represent ma
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